Thursday, October 31, 2019
Teachers_ perceptions of the use of technology in teaching language Article
Teachers_ perceptions of the use of technology in teaching language - Article Example First an introduction has been given as to what contribution has technology made in education and especially the teaching of language. Then, teachers’ competencies and barriers to the integration of technology have been discussed. After that, various technological tools and concept are discussed like CALL and ICT, which the teachers can make use of to facilitate their language teaching process. The report is summarized in a concluding paragraph and MLA referencing style has been used properly. Introduction Since the advent of sophisticated technological means, the educators have been trying to modify the instructional process with the help of technology. According to Baker, early 1960’s brought with it â€Å"new curricula, instructional models, and approaches to individualization†(3) of instruction but the drawback with these instructional schemes was their poor management. An ideal classroom environment is so dynamic in which each student presents his own under standing and is comfortable with his own set of instructional materials. Thus, the teacher needs to organize instructional schemes in such a way that all students with their unique calibers are equally attended to. Teachers started feeling the necessity of incorporating information and communication technology in teaching language. According to Kaka, â€Å"Technology (internet) in another side can be the most effective way to increase the student’s knowledge.†Teacher Perception, Competencies and Barriers Kong and Kwok studied teacher perception of the use of information technology in teaching languages in a school in Hong Kong and examined this perception under four domains that included â€Å"teacher perception of their computer training, computer facilities and assistance available, their confidence and comfortability in using computer in daily lessons, and their perception of their roles in using IT in classrooms.†Their survey results supported the idea tha t teacher perception had a positive effect in the usage if teacher-centered technological approaches in the teaching process. They also found that the teachers and the school administration worked in a collaborative environment for the implementation and usage of IT in classrooms especially in language learning. Another similar research has been conducted by Ismail, Ghaleb and Almekhlafi (37) who studied teacher perception teaching Arabic and English languages in schools in UAE. They also found that teachers’ support and willingness to incorporate technology in their teaching languages is very important to obtain positive outcomes. They discussed the benefits of the usage of IT both for the teachers and the students and found from their qualitative and quantitative research that teacher perception should be considered seriously for better implementation of technological tools in classrooms. Hence, as Woodrow (qtd. in Ismail, Ghaleb and Almakhlefi 37) asserts, â€Å"teachers are seen to be active agents in the process of changes and implementation of new ideas as their beliefs and attitudes may support or impede the success of any educational reform such as the utilization of an innovative technology program.†Technological advances have greatly facilitated the language learning. The teachers today can use many technological too
Tuesday, October 29, 2019
Human Resource Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words
Human Resource Management - Assignment Example Like men, women employees are important for organizations as they have different perceptions about managing business activities and they definitely help them in achieving their business goals and objectives. In the last couple of years, the number of female employees has increased drastically and policies have been changed to ensure that there is equality among the workforce and women are not deprived of their rights. The biggest advantage of having women as employees is that there is discipline in organizations and business activities are conducted in a proper and strategic way. In addition to having a positive work atmosphere, involving women in business decision making has helped various organizations to achieve success in a short span of time. Women’s work capabilities are totally different from men and they differ in terms of managing business activities, compliance with rules and regulations and critical thinking in business decisions. Since women tend to abide by organi zational policies more than men, the organization’s culture is disciplined and every business activity is properly managed. Along with these aspects, women do a lot of analysis and thinking when involved in any decision-making process and they prefer to evaluate every option from all critical aspects so that resources are efficiently allocated and organization is able to earn proper return on its investment. They need to ensure that they have an appropriate number of them within their work environment.
Sunday, October 27, 2019
Carbon Membranes from Polyamideimide and Polyetherimide
Carbon Membranes from Polyamideimide and Polyetherimide CARBON MEMBRANES FROM POLYAMIDEIMIDE AND POLYETHERIMIDE FOR NITROGEN AND METHANE SEPARATION AND ITS PARAMETER STUDY ABSTRACT Carbon membranes prepared from polyamideimide and polyetherimide were studied to find out the effects of different parameters on membrane characteristics. Their properties were analyzed to understand its scope in methane purification. Different compositions were tried to find out the optimum polymer composition as well as the optimum blend composition. They were pyrolyzed at various temperatures to study the effect of pyrolysis temperature on the morphology of the membrane. Efforts have been made for obtaining a narrow pore distribution as nitrogen and methane have comparable sizes. Analysis of the microstructure of membranes using XRD confirms the variations in chain packing density and d-spacing of polymer chains as a result of a change in pyrolysis temperature. CHN analysis revealed the percentage composition of different elements in the membrane as it was important to control amount of oxygen in the membrane. Glass transition temperature is found using DSC to confirm perfect blen ding of polymers. TGA has been done to find out how the polymer composition affects degradation temperature and to study the chemical changes occurring during pyrolysis. SEM images, both cross section, and surface have been taken to analyze pore structure of the membrane. Keywords: Polyetherimide, Polyamideimide, Pyrolysis, XRD, SEM, CHN. INTRODUCTION Membranes have been widely received as a promising technology in gas separation processes. This is due to its high reliability, low capital investment and low energy usage which overshadow conventional gas separation techniques such as cryogenic distillation, liquid absorption, pressure swing adsorption etc. These established conventional techniques are known for their complexity in processes and high energy intensity. For this reason, researchers are making efforts for an alternative way that promises to give high-cost effectiveness and easy handling (1). Polymer membranes have been widely studied for their application in gas separating units, but they always faced drawbacks like low thermal and chemical stability. Henceforth studies have been focused on carbon membranes, which are the novel and advanced type of membranes. They have been giving promising results ever since and marked a new benchmark for the selectivity of gasses. Excellent ability to withstand high temperature and chemicals made carbon membranes a new branch of study for the researchers to follow. (2) Carbon membranes are prepared by pyrolysing polymer membranes. Pyrolysis is the most significant step in the preparation of carbon membrane. There are different pyrolysis factors that affect membrane properties. During pyrolysis the parameters like pyrolysis temperature, heating rate, atmospheric condition, soaking time etc. can influence the transport properties of the membrane. These factors are chosen wisely based on the application of the membrane. (3) Material selection is the prime factor concerning in preparation of carbon membrane. There are wide varieties of precursor polymers available for preparation of carbon membrane (4). Selection of polymer is the important factor as pyrolysis of different polymer gives carbon membrane with entirely different properties. The precursor polymer should satisfy minimum criteria such as it should not soften nor liquefies during pyrolysis. It should be able to withstand high temperature (5). Polyamidimides and polyetherimides are being recently studied and are found to be giving satisfactory results due to its high melting point and thermal stability (6). Fuertes and Centeno used polyetherimide to prepare supported carbon membrane for gas separation (7). They conducted gas permeability studies for individual gasses as well as for many mixtures of gasses. They also used phenolic resins for their studies (8). Different polymers are always blended to effectively combine the desirable properties of the blending polymers. Gas separation properties of carbon membranes are enhanced while combining different materials. New studies are going on investigating the blending techniques for an optimized result (9). Pore size control is one of the most challenging factors in carbon membrane preparation. Nitrogen and methane is having a kinetic diameter of 3.6 °A and 3.8 °A respectively (10). So in order to separate them by molecular sieving very narrow pore distribution has to be obtained. To get very specific pore size, pyrolysis temperature was changed accordingly. Two types of polymers were chosen so as to understand the effect of individual polymer on membrane properties. Membrane parameters such as polymer concentration, pyrolysis temperature were varied to understand the morphological as well as chemical changes taking place in the membrane. Comparison of carbon membrane with polymer membrane was carried out, which showed interesting results that can be further used to study gas permeation properties of the membranes. Results revealed that these membranes can be used for the separation process of nitrogen from methane. EXPERIMENTAL Material Polyamideimide (PAI) polymer and Polyetherimide (PEI) polymer which are required for the preparation of polymer membrane were purchased from UTM, Malaysia. N-methyl 2-pyrrolidone (NMP) was the solvent used and it was purchased from Merck Life Science Private Limited, Mumbai, India. Methanol used for washing was bought from Titan Biotech Limited, Rajasthan, India. Acetone was purchased from Merck Specialities Private Limited, Mumbai, India. All reagents were used without any further purification. Polymer Membrane Preparation Polymers that were chosen for preparation were polyamideimide and polyetherimide. The solvent used was N-Methyl-2- pyrolidone. The polymer concentration in NMP was varied from 2- 20 wt.% as shown in the Table 1. Different batches of polymer solution were prepared by dissolving the corresponding amount of polymer in 25ml NMP. Polyamideimide-polyetherimide ratio in the solution was varied as 25/75%, 50/50%, 75/25%, 0/100% and prepared different batches accordingly. For complete dissolution, the solution was kept for magnetic stirring for 3 hrs. The temperature was increased up to 80oC occasionally for 10 minutes, to avoid undissolved particles in the solution. Later the solution was sonicated in a sonication bath. The solution was then casted on a glass plate using a casting rod. The casting rode that was used has a dimension of 450ÃŽ ¼m. The glass plate was kept in the atmosphere for two days for evaporation of the solvent. Later it was kept inside a vacuum oven at 60oC for complete r emoval of NMP. Table 1: Polymer Batches Sample Code Total Polymer (%) PAI/PEI wt percentage (%) PM-01 2 25/75 PM-02 9 25/75 PM-03 12 25/75 PM-04 15 25/75 PM-05 18 25/75 PM-06 20 25/75 Carbon Membrane Preparation Polymer membrane was cut into a rectangular piece and transferred into an alumina crucible. It was then kept inside a tubular furnace by VBCC for pyrolysis. It was a horizontal furnace with alumina tube. Nitrogen environment was chosen for pyrolysis. The flow rate of nitrogen was kept at 25ml/min. Polymer membranes with PAI/PEI composition of 25/75% was only further used for making carbon membrane as they showed good structural stability compared to other batches. For pyrolysis different protocols were followed. The protocols are as shown below, 1) 50 to 250 oC at a ramp rate of 13.3 Co/min.(2) 250 oC to (Tmax-15) oC at a ramp rate of 3.85 Co/min.(3) (Tmax-15) oC to Tmax oC at a ramp rate of 0.25 Co/min.(4) Soak at Tmax for 2 h. (11)  After pyrolysis, it was kept for natural cooling before taking out. The different batches of carbon membranes based on different pyrolysis protocol were prepared as given in the Table 2. Polymer membrane with 9% polymer concentration was the membrane used for studying different pyrolysis protocols. Table 2: Carbon Membrane Batches Sample Code Total Polymer (%) Pyrolysis Temperature(oC) CM-01 2 600 CM-600 9 600 CM-450 9 450 CM-800 9 800 CM-03 12 600 CM-04 15 600 CM-05 18 600 CM-06 20 600 Characterization of Synthesized Membranes Various techniques were employed for the characterization of polymer as well as their derivative carbon membranes. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) was used to find out glass transition temperature of polymer membranes and to study the blending of polymers. Under nitrogen atmosphere, scans from 50 to 450oC at the heating rate of 10oC/min were performed on a DSC Perkin Elmer model 6000. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was used to study the thermal degradation of the polymer membranes. Degradation temperature of the membrane, as well as the weight loss during the process, is analyzed. It was carried out on a TGA Perkin Elmer 4000 model, in nitrogen atmosphere at a flow rate of 30 mL min-1. The temperature range was from 50 up to 750 oC. X-ray Diffractometer (XRD) was used to study the structural changes in membrane due to variation in pyrolysis temperature. Perkin Elmer 1621 wide-angle X-ray diffractometer was the instrument used to study the microstructural changes in membrane. Using Braggs law the average d-spacing of the membrane was evaluated. It is as shown below, nÃŽ » = 2d sin ÃŽ ¸, where n is an integral number, ÃŽ » is the X-ray wavelength, d is for the inter-layer spacing between the polymer chains and ÃŽ ¸ is the diffraction angle. CHN analysis was conducted to study the variation in the elemental composition with pyrolysis temperature. Elementar Vario EL was the equipment used here for analysis. Compostion of oxygen was found using separate apparatus. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) was used to get pore size of the membrane as well as get a closer image of the membrane. JEOL Model JSM 6390LV is the model used for the analysis. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Physical properties Both PAI and PEI met the requirements for preparing carbon membrane with promising results. While contents of PAI in membrane made the membrane more brittle, which is due to its aromatic rings, (10) PEI gave structural support to the membrane. So PAI/PEI content was fixed at 25/75% for all the batches later on. As two polymers are used, the miscibility of the precursors has to be tested and glass transition temperature of the membrane was taken as the criteria for the evaluation. For the polymer blends, Tg was found to be in between of that of individual polymers. Tg of PEI and PAI are 217 °C and 280 °C respectively. And from the Table 3 it is clear that both the polymers are completely miscible and was perfectly blended together. Table 3: Glass Transition Temperature Sample Code PAI/PEI wt Percentage (%) Glass Transition Temperature (oC) PM-25 25/75 233 PM-50 50/50 249 PM-75 75/25 265 PM-100 0/100 219 Effect of polymer concentration on thermal characteristics         Unlike polymer membrane, carbon membrane was thermally and chemically stable. Thermal stability is analyzed by TGA. TGA analysis of all polymer membranes is shown in Figure 1. It shows that concentration does not have much effect on degradation temperature of membranes. But it gives an insight into chose the pyrolysis protocol that has to be followed. There are different pyrolysis protocols for preparation of carbon membranes, based on type of precursors used, one protocol is fixed. Figure 1: Thermal analysis of Polymer Membranes Figure 1 illustrates the weight variation of polymer membranes during the heating process up to 800 °C. According to the TGA thermo-diagram, the degradation temperature (Td) is 550 °C and was defined as the temperature corresponding to 15% weight loss. This indicates the high thermal resistance of the membrane. The total weight loss at 800 °C, with 10 °/min heating rate, was approximately 60%. The enhanced thermal stability of the membrane highlights its quality as a precursor for the preparation of carbon molecular sieve membranes. Effect of polymer concentration on structure of membrane Figure 2: XRD of Carbon Membrane of different concentrations Effect of polymer concentration on structure of carbon membrane is shown in Figure 2. As the concentration of polymer was increased from 2% to 20%, peak intensification took place, resulting in a more compact structure. Pore size was reduced and membrane with higher packing density is formed. Effect of pyrolysis temperature on microstructure of membrane Structural analysis on carbon membranes was done by obtaining XRD spectra as a function of pyrolysis temperature. As shown in Figure 3, the XRD spectrum for membrane prepared at 450oC is a merger of two peaks at 22.7o and 18.8o. With increase in pyrolysis temperature, the peaks joined into a single but intensified peak with a shift toward the smaller pore sizes; indicating a decrement in average d-spacing. Figure 3: XRD of Carbon Membrane prepared at different temperatures d-spacing in carbon membrane refers to interlayer distances, with increase in temperature more compact structures are formed. 800  °C was found to be the optimum pyrolysis temperature as membrane having high density and packing efficiency are formed at this temperature. (1) Effect of pyrolysis temperature on membrane composition In order to study how pyrolysis temperature changed the chemical composition of the membrane, elemental analysis has been conducted for both polymers as well as carbon membrane. In Figure 4, the point zero in x-axis corresponds to precursor membrane and it has the lowest carbon content and they started to increase with increase in pyrolysis temperature. However other elemental contents like oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen was reduced with increase in temperature. Presence of oxygen compounds in the carbon membrane surface can make the membrane more hydrophilic and can cause swelling of membranes (11). For the better performance of carbon membrane oxygen content has to be less than 4% (12).When pyrolysis temperature in increased, oxygen content is reduced. Membrane prepared at 800oC has oxygen content less than 4%. So the effect of pyrolysis temperature on hydrophilictiy of the carbon membrane was tested to study the influence of oxygen in the membrane. From the Table 4 it is clear that as pyrolysis temperature is increased, amount of water absorbed is decreased, thus increasing the hydrophobic nature of carbon membranes. This can be explained by the reduction in oxygen containing group in membrane with pyrolysis temperature. Figure 4: Elemental analysis of membranes Table 4: Hydrophilicity of carbon membranes Sample-Code Pyrolysis Temperature ( °C) Wet weight of the membrane (g) Dry weight of the membrane (g) Amount of water absorbed (g) CM-450 450 0.0588 0.0553 0.0035 CM-600 600 0.0523 0.0503 0.0020 CM-800 800 0.0687 0.0607 0.0008 Morphology of Membranes The surface and cross-section morphologies of carbon membranes as well as polymer membranes were investigated by SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) techniques. Surface image of polymer membrane is shown in Figure 6. It shows a smooth and defect free surface without any deformation. Cross section of the polymer membrane is also shown below. Compared to carbon membrane it does not have uniform pore distribution. All the pores are elongated pores and the membrane formed is very dense. Thickness of polymer membrane was found to be 250ÃŽ ¼m. The honey-comb structure of carbon membrane shows the pore structure in the membrane (Figure 5). It is clear from the image that the membrane is rich in pores and has quite a uniform pore distribution. The membrane was having a sponge-like matrix unlike polymer membrane. This uniform pore distribution allows carbon membrane to have high selectivity over polymer membrane.                                                                     (b) Figure 5: SEM images: (a) Top surface and (b) Cross section of Carbon Membrane                                                                     (b) Figure 6: SEM images: (a) Top surface and (b) Cross section of PolymerMembrane CONCLUSION Different polymer blends were tried for the preparation of polymer membrane and membranes derived from Polyamideimde/Polyetherimide (25/75wt.%) exhibited more attractive performance than the other blends. Polymer concentration was varied from 2-20% and at 9% it was found to be exhibiting best results. Polymer membranes prepared from PAI/PEI were transparent hydrophilic membranes. Polymer membranes were thermally unstable compared to carbon membrane and were found to have degradation temperature around 450oC. Complete miscibility of both the polymers was confirmed and the glass transition temperature of the polymer membrane was also found. For the preparation of carbon membrane different protocols were followed for pyrolysis, and 800oC was found to be the optimum temperature for pyrolysis. Thermal analysis of membrane had conducted, which proved the higher thermal stability of the carbon membrane. Morphological studies shows that carbon membrane prepared at 800oC have desirable pore size compared to other membranes prepared at lower temperatures. XRD studies of the carbon membrane showed that as temperature increases, more compact membranes are obtained, which decreases the permeability of the membrane. All the membranes have shown promising results that can be further investigated for gas separation studies. References 1. Carbon membranes from blends of PBI and polyimides for N2/CH4 and CO2/CH4. Seyed Saeid Hosseini, Tai Shung Chung. s.l. : Journal of Membrane Science, 2009, Vol. 328. 174-185. 2. A review on the latest development of carbon membranes for gas separation. A.F. Ismail, L.I.B. David. s.l. : J. Membr. Sci., 2001, Vol. 193. 1. 3. Fabrication of carbon membranes for gas separationa review. S.M. Saufi, A.F. Ismail. s.l. : Carbon, 2004, Vol. 42. 241-259. 4. Gas permeation through micropores of carbon molecular sieve membranes derived from kapton polyimide. Suda H, Haraya K. s.l. : Chem B, 1997, Vol. 101. 3988-94. 5. DH, Morthon-Jones. Polymer processing. London : Chapman and Hal, 1984. Chapter 2. 6. Relationship between chemical structure of aromatic polyimides and gas permeation properties of their carbon molecular sieve membranes. H.B. Park, Y.K. Kim, J.M. Lee, S.Y. Lee, Y.M. Lee. s.l. : J. Membr. Sci., 2004, Vol. 229. 117. 7. Carbon molecular sieve membranes from polyetherimide. Fuertes AB, Centeno TA. s.l. : Microporous Mesoporous Mater, 1998, Vol. 26. 23-6. 8. Supported carbon molecular sieve membranes based on phenolic resin. Centeno TA, Fuertes AB. s.l. : J Membr Sci, 1999, Vol. 160. 201-211. 9. Gas separation properties of carbon molecular sieve membranes derived from polyimide/polyvinylpyrrolidone blends: effect of the molecular weight of polyvinylpyrrolidone. Y.K. Kim, H.B. Park, Y.M. Lee. s.l. : of the molecular weight of polyvinylpyrrolidone, 2005, Vol. 251. 159. 10. Ahmad Fauzi Ismail, Dipak Rana, Takeshi Matsuura ,Henry C. Foley. Carbon-based Membranes for Separation Processes. London : Springer, 2011. 11. Carbon molecular sieve membranes derived from Matrimid polyimide for nitrogen/methane separation. Xue Ning, William J. Koros. s.l. : Carbon, 2014, Vol. 66. 5 1 1 5 2 2. 12. Interaction, miscibility and phase. E. Fà ¶ldes, E. Fekete, F.E. Karasz, B. Pukà ¡nszky. s.l. : Polymer, 2000, Vol. 41. 975. 13. Gas permeation and micropore structure of carbon molecular sieving membranes modified by oxidation. Kusakabe K, Yamamoto M, Morooka S. s.l. : J Membr Sci , 1998, Vol. 149. 59-67. 14. Characterization of ultramicroporous carbon membranes with. Jones CW, Koros WJ. s.l. : Ind Eng Chem Res, 1995, Vol. 34. 158-163.
Friday, October 25, 2019
Visions of Utopia in Bellamys Looking Backward Essay -- Looking Back
Visions of Utopia in Looking Backward  Edward Bellamy addressed many of the topics crucial to the development of a civilization in his book, Looking Backward. In the story he addresses several different features of years past utopias. Some being "universal harmony, distribution of occupation according to individual aptitudes, equality of reward, universal ease and comfort, reduction of hours of labor, suppression of idleness, of competition, of the struggle for life, and also for money" (De Laveleye). Many of these topics Bellamy addresses in a positive manner; while others he does not. In Bellamy's book, Looking Backward, a character named Julian West suffers from insomnia. Because of his condition, he is put into a soundproof chamber. He falls asleep and does not wake up for over one hundred years. His story is about the civilization that he discovers when he wakes up. America has developed into a socialistic country and is standing on the brink of utopia. Bellamy addresses inequality in his book, Looking Backward. In the old times; inequality was cured by making the greedy industrial. In this new utopia, there is no need for inequality because everyone has the same. "There shall be no individual production of property and no individual accumulation of it. It shall be produced by the state, and distributed by the state equally to all individuals, without any reference to their function in producing it, intellectually or physically" (Harris). This simply states that in Bellamy's utopia it makes no difference what your social standing is; everyone is given the same amount of supplies and money. Bellamy addresses the distribution of professions in Looking Backward. It is quite obvious to realize that the more pl... ...speak it from time to time. In this way, Bellamy tires to show that his utopia is non-discriminatory. Edward Bellamy addressed several very tough subjects in his book, Looking Backward. He did this by attempting to create an interesting story in which people could find his views on the future of America as an utopia. Although his attempt at literary fame failed; Bellamy did succeed in exposing possible solutions to many of the problems that still plague our country today: fair job placement, material possessions and poverty, unregulated capitalism, and discrimination. Bibliography Taylor, Walter Fuller. "Edward Bellamy", The Economic Novel. 1897 Bowman, Sylvia E. "Bellamy's Missing Chapter", The New England Quarterly. 1958 DeLaveleye, Emile. "Two New Utopia's", Contemporary Review. 1890 Harris, W.T. "Edward Bellamy's Vision", The Forum. 1889
Thursday, October 24, 2019
History †Western Civilization Essay
Darwin’s view on natural selection is that man incessantly presents individual differences in all parts of his body and in his mental faculties. These differences or variations seem to be induced by the same general causes, and to obey the same laws as with the lower animals. In both cases similar laws of inheritance prevail. Man tends to increase at a greater rate than his means of subsistence; consequently he is occasionally subjected to a severe struggle for existence, and natural selection will have effected whatever lies within its scope. A succession of strongly-marked variations of a similar nature is by no means requisite; slight fluctuating differences in the individual suffice for the work of natural selection; not for any reason to suppose that in the same species, all parts of the organization tend to vary to the same degree. It may be assuring that the inherited effects of the long-continued use or disuse of parts will have done much in the same direction with natural selection. Modifications formerly of importance, though no longer of any special use, are long-inherited. When one part is modified, other parts change through the principle of correlation, of which we have instances in many curious cases of correlated monstrosities. Something may be attributed to the direct and definite action of the surrounding conditions of life, such as abundant food, heat or moisture; and lastly, many characters of slight physiological importance, some indeed of considerable importance, have been gained through sexual selection. The belief in God has often been advanced as not only the greatest, but the most complete of all the distinctions between man and the lower animals. It is however impossible to maintain that this belief is innate or instinctive in man. On the other hand a belief in all-pervading spiritual agencies seems to be universal; and apparently follows from a considerable advance in man’s reason, and from a still greater advance in his faculties of imagination, curiosity and wonder. Darwin’s aware that the assumed instinctive belief in God has been used by many persons as an argument for His existence. But this is a rash argument, as one thus is compelled to believe in the existence of many cruel and malignant spirits, only a little more powerful than man; for the belief in them is far more general than in a beneficent Deity. The idea of a universal and beneficent Creator does not seem to arise in the mind of man, until one has been elevated by long-continued culture. Darwin’s view on race talks about modifications acquired independently of selection, and due to variations arising from the nature of the organism and the action of the surrounding conditions, or from changed habits of life, no single pair will have been modified much more than the other pairs inhabiting the same country, for all will have been continually blended through free intercrossing. Since man attained to the rank of manhood, he has diverged into distinct races, or as they may be more fitly called, sub-species. Some of these, such as the Negro and European, are so distinct that, if specimens had been brought to a naturalist without any further information, they would undoubtedly have been considered by him as good and true species. Nevertheless all the races agree in so many unimportant details of structure and in so many mental peculiarities that these can be accounted for only by inheritance from a common progenitor; and a progenitor thus characterized would probably deserve to rank as man. But it must not be supposed that the divergence of each race from the other races, and of all from a common stock, can be traced back to any one pair of progenitors. REFERENCE Darwin, C. (1874). The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. New York: A. L. Burt. Hart, M. (1992). The descent of man; the origin of species. Retrieved August 15, 2006, from the Great Literature Book-Worm org Web site:http://www. book-worm. org/darwin-charles/the-descent-of-man/chapter-21. html
Wednesday, October 23, 2019
Jane Eyre Outline
She achieves the love she had been starved for and slowly accumulating since her childhood after Gathered. I. She has the ultimate love with someone who sees her as beautiful and worthwhile. It. Towards the end of the novel she seems to be referred to more pretty more often than plain.Why? B. Talking about SST. John ties up loose ends: I. Self-sacrifice; how to serve people the right way? I'. Illnesses- prevalent throughout Jane Ere (SST. John's is overwork) Ill. India reminds of West Indies: Rochester & Bertha; Travel c. Becoming worthy of love: I. Respecting morals and the Inviolability of the soul as much as earthly pleasures it. Rochester praises God, who he had forsaken for his misfortune with Bertha Ill. Jane sees another side of the social system and lives simply and selflessly lb. Jane goes to find her path, and receives a sign from God to go back to where she belongs whenRochester Is ready v. The child Is a symbol of their new life Jane Ere Outline By sauerkraut as beautiful and worthwhile. I'. Towards the end of the novel she seems to be it. Illnesses- prevalent throughout Jane Ere (SST. John's is overwork) ill. India reminds I. Respecting morals and the inviolability of the soul as much as earthly pleasures it. Rochester praises God, who he had forsaken for his misfortune with Bertha iii. Jane sees another side of the social system and lives simply and selflessly ‘v. Jane goes to Rochester is ready v. The child is a symbol of their new life
Tuesday, October 22, 2019
Geography of South Carolina essays
Geography of South Carolina essays The Blue Ridge is named for the Blue Ridge Mountains that are in it. It is the smallest region covering less than 2 percent of the state. It has many mountains consisting of metamorphic rock over 350 million years old. The next region is the Piedmont. The region of Piedmont stretches from the Blue Ridge to the fall line. Piedmont means foot of the mountains. It covers about one-third of the state. It is the second largest region and is about one hundred miles wide. Over a million people live in the Piedmont region. It is home to the cities of Greenville, Spartanburg, and Rock Hill. South Carolinas automobile plants and many textile factories are in the region. The next region is the Sandhills. The Sandhills are in the middle of the state. The region stretches from the Fall Line to the Coastal Plain. Sandhills was a coastline thousands of years ago. The sandhills is also sometimes called the Red hills. It is also referred to as the Midlands. It includes parts of Aiken, Chesterfield, Kershaw, Richland, and Sumter Counties. Columbia the capitol of the state is in this region. The next region is the Coastal Plain. It is the largest region covering over 20,000 square miles and goes from the Sandhills to the Coastal Zone. IT is divided into the outer and Inner Coastal Plains. The only difference is the inner has more hills. Cities in the coastal Plain include Sumter, Florence, and Orangeburg. The most interesting features of the Coastal Plain are the oval depressions called bays, which may or may not have water. One of the most famous bays is the bay Swamp in Sumter County. The final region is the Coastal Zone. It stretches from the Atlantic Ocean inland for about 10 miles. It has great beaches such as Myrtle Beach and North Myrtle. The barrier islands, which are just off the coast, protect the beaches from eroding. It gets the most tourists and is widely ...
Monday, October 21, 2019
A Brief History of Prosthetics
A Brief History of Prosthetics The history of prosthetics and amputation surgery begins at the very dawning of human medicine. In the three great western civilizations of Egypt, Greece and Rome, the first true rehabilitation aids recognized as prostheses were made. Early use of prosthetics goes back to at least the fifth Egyptian Dynasty that reigned between 2750 to 2625 B.C. The oldest known splint was unearthed by archaeologists from that period. But the earliest known written reference to an artificial limb was made around 500 B.C. During the time, Herodotus wrote of a prisoner who escaped from his chains by cutting off his foot, which he later replaced with a wooden substitute. An artificial limb dating from 300 B.C., was a copper and wood leg that was unearthed at Capri, Italy in 1858. In 1529, French surgeon Ambroise Pare (1510-1590) introduced amputation as a lifesaving measure in medicine. Soon after, Pare started developing prosthetic limbs in a scientific manner. And in 1863, Dubois L Parmelee of New York City made a significant improvement to the attachment of artificial limbs by fastening a body socket to the limb with atmospheric pressure. While he was not the first person to do so, he was the first to make it practical enough to be used in medical practices. In 1898, a doctor named Vanghetti came up with an artificial limb that could move through muscle contraction. It wasn’t until the middle of the 20th century that major advancements were made in the attachment of lower limbs. In 1945, the National Academy of Sciences established the Artificial Limb Program as a way to improve the quality of life of World War II veterans who suffered the lost of limbs in combat. A year later, researchers at the University of California at Berkeley developed a suction sock for the above-knee prosthesis. Fast forward to 1975 and the year an inventor named Ysidro M. Martinez took things a major step further by creating a below-the-knee prosthesis that avoided some of the problems associated with conventional artificial limbs. Instead of replicating the natural limb with articulated joints in the ankle or foot which tended to lead to poor gait, Martinez, an amputee himself, took a theoretical approach in his design. His prosthesis relies on a high center of mass and is light in weight to facilitate acceleration and deceleration and reduce friction. The foot is also considerably shorter to control acceleration forces, further reducing the friction and pressure. New advances to keep an eye involve the growing use of 3-D printing, which has allowed for the fast, precise manufacturing of artificial limbs that traditionally have been custom-built by hand. The U.S. government’s National Institutes of Health has recently established the 3D Print Exchange program as a way to provide researchers and students with the necessary modeling and software tools to fabricate prosthetics using 3D printing machines. But beyond prosthetic limbs, here’s another fun fact: Pare could also have laid claim to be the father of facial prosthetics, making artificial eyes from enameled gold, silver, porcelain and glass. Thats your fun fact of the day
Sunday, October 20, 2019
How Networking Got Me a Podcast … and Can Get You a Job
How Networking Got Me a Podcast †¦ and Can Get You a Job One of my new year’s â€Å"ressaylutions†was to investigate and choose a CRM (customer relationship management) system. This week I chose Infusionsoft; but this blog is not about CRM systems or new year’s resolutions. It’s about networking. The sales rep at Infusionsoft connected me with Wes Schaefer, a.k.a. The Sales Whisperer. The first thing Wes did after learning about my business was ask me if I would do a podcast for him on the topic of writing LinkedIn profiles. I was very happy to oblige. I felt grateful for his support and didn’t think twice before giving him a free LinkedIn profile review. Guess what? I now have a podcast that went out to Wes’ list and aired on April 22. It turns out I’m not even going to work with him for the project I initially contacted him about! But possibilities opened up for doing some business together and for me to present webinars to his 5,500-member list. People want to connect with people, and they want to help! It’s human nature. It’s amazing what can come out of simply talking- and listening- to people, and then doing whatever you can that might be helpful for them. Here’s the thing: People want to connect with people, and they want to help! It’s human nature. If you’re a job seeker, it’s important to remember these facts about people. You might be afraid to approach someone who could help you because you don’t want to bother them, you feel needy, or some other related reason. Remember: People want to connect with people, and they want to help. That said, people also don’t want to feel used or bothered. So how do you approach the connections you have in a way that pushes their â€Å"I want to help†button? One way is to be indirect. It helped, for instance, that I did not call Wes looking for an opportunity to present a webinar. HE saw the opportunity. And he did not ask me for a free LinkedIn profile review; I saw that opening to help him. In job searching, the â€Å"indirect†approach works as well. You are not likely to get a warm welcome with the question, â€Å"Can you give me a job?†Rather, take a research-oriented approach- much like I was researching CRM implementation providers when I called Wes. I know I love connecting people with others who can help them, and I also love sharing my specialized knowledge with people who really need it. It makes me feel special! The following ideas are based on the premise that most people feel the same way I do. Here are†¦ 4 Ways to Use Your Networks to Get a Job †¦ Without Turning Anyone Off Ask for a meeting and say something like this: â€Å"I’m considering a career change and I have done quite a bit of initial research, including x, y and z. My colleague John suggested that you might be a great resource to find out more about this industry. Would you be available to meet for lunch?†Write a letter advising your networking contact that you are doing research about an industry or list of companies (note someone does not have to work at a particular company to be in the know). You can provide the list of companies and ask if they know contact information for key players, current trends, organizational culture, major projects pending, organizational/staffing changes and opportunities, and/or problems the company is facing. Ask your close connections to do some research for you! If your husband is a golfer, he can mention your job search on the course and find out who might be a valuable resource for you. Or if your cousin is in construction and you are exploring the possibility of working in that field, ask your cousin to talk to her contacts who might be willing to meet with you and tell you what it’s like to work at her company.  Join an association, or even a networking group in an area where perhaps you haven’t interacted before. Introduce yourself and what you’re up to. These groups are eager to provide resources and to connect you with people who can help. Many times, these types of researching questions will lead to information about an open position. The trick is to honestly approach people with the expectation that they will give you information- not a job! Of course, it’s a good idea to learn more about the person you’re contacting as well. It’s likely you’ll be inspired to do something for them, just as they were inspired to support you. If you have used any of these techniques in the past, please share your experience. And if you try one of them after reading this blog, please report back on your results!
Saturday, October 19, 2019
Administrators role as a supervisor and motivator Essay - 1
Administrators role as a supervisor and motivator - Essay Example We are now in the midst of the greatest period of change in school administration since its origin in American education. Through the energizing role of the Cooperative Program in Educational Administration, the whole profession has undergone the most penetrating examination and revision of practice. The underlying concepts of the functions and process of administration have also been critically examined. As a result, school administration now is quite different from what it was ten years ago. In all probability, it will be much, much different fifty years from now. It is our purpose, of this paper, to discuss school administration in relation to the findings of this critical examination and revised practice. The approach will not be very familiar to those who are acquainted with the traditional texts on the subject. It is, however, the normal outgrowth of some of the newer books that have put increasing emphasis on the process and the personnel aspects of administration. This emphasis accomplishes a dual service: (1) it presents the changing and improved practices in the field, and (2) it gives impetus to the swing toward the newer concepts of administration. The concept of school administration, particularly of the role of the chief school administrator, advanced by Davies, deals with three components: the administrators job, the man he is, and the social setting in which he functions. Defined very briefly, the job includes the administrators tasks and responsibilities, which vary in importance and emphasis as time passes, and encompasses all that is relevant to the administration of todays schools. The man brings to the job certain capacities of body, mind, emotion, and spirit. He has beliefs, values, expectations, behavior patterns, energy reserves, and skills. While the job shapes him, he also shapes the job. The social setting encompasses the pressures and compulsions of society.
Friday, October 18, 2019
The notion that Internally Displaced Persons are forced migrants Essay
The notion that Internally Displaced Persons are forced migrants denied rights to claim asylum - Essay Example The category we are interested with is the people who have been exiled within their own country. Moving on further one more that is to be known is why such migration do takes place. This can be divided into three broad classes. The first of it being the most common and easily viewed reasons keeping in view the present situations. People are forced to leave their shelter and peaceful life when their own state and government fails to provide adequate security to their people. Ibrahim, M. (2005) As a result the populace is left with no reasons to but leave their country unwillingly. Second, comes the cause when people are made to leave their homes for the so- called development the state undertakes, in many cases the people are initially promised to be given a place, a shelter but it turns out to be false. It generally incorporates in it the infrastructural improvement like dams, roads, canals, infrastructure expansion, and urban extension and so on. Finally, we have the persons who hav e been left homeless due to the uncalled natural disasters like floods, cyclones, torrential rainfalls, deadly hailstorms and the list may go on. In the recent the frequency of these calamities have led it to become one of the most prominent reason for the internally displaced people or what we may on a general base term as forced expatriates. Moreover, now we take up internally displaced people as to how they come up in this category. It is one of the most misunderstood categories. It is generally confused with refugees although both of them have and entirely different concept. Therefore we first we should have a proper idea as to what refugees are and what makes them different than the persons who are displaced within their own country. Refugees have been ensured protection with the help of different treaties, laws and conventions which also guarantees the refugees or foreign expatriates rights in any part of the world. As the UN has elaborated, refugee is term which would be give n to those entire people who are made to leave their homes and go beyond their country’s borders i.e. they move out of the place of their birth or nationality and settle in some foreign lands. Indra, D. (ed) (1999). The refugees have been recognized since the olden times, they are product of wars or foreign domination over a place. Since 1984 there has been great development so that plea of refugees can be heard and their needs can be looked after. We have many governmental and independent bodies working for refugees. On the other hand, when it comes to the IDP’s we see that they are hardly looked after. Koser K. (2007). They are not given proper rights nor are they looked after by their own state. Currently, there are present fifty-two countries, which have been inflicted by this problem. Amongst all these countries Africa tops the list with the most internally displaced people due to the ethnic and religious violence which has been ongoing for quite long. We do not h ave many organizations that are there to help these people who are made to leave their own homes and have to move some other part of the country but they are not treated in the way they should be as the citizens of the country. We have an acronym for them which DPRE’s a term used to refer such people by the governmental and military organizations. Cohen, R (2006). This is an increasing problem but has not been given much importance however, in the nineties
The Importance of CSR and the issue of child labour in the cocoa Research Paper
The Importance of CSR and the issue of child labour in the cocoa Industry - Africa - Research Paper Example The experience of child labor issue in cocoa industry delivers significant lessons to the stakeholders who are related with the supply chain procedure of cocoa. It has been recognized that every stakeholder is liable for the issue of child labor in cocoa production and appropriate CSR initiatives must be applied for overcoming this issue. Child labor is considered as a sensitive issue in the international commercial practices. Child labor has existed since log time. In several nations, many children are used to suffering every day due to the bane of child labor and they grow with grueling memories which not only destruct their future, but the future of the nation as well. Among other industries, cocoa industry has been considered as one of the most vital sectors, which involves child labor by a considerable extent. During 2000 to 2001, a study of International Labor Office (ILO) reported that in West African region, children were being marketed and engaged in harmful and slave-like situations in cocoa businesses. Reviews were also conducted in the year 2002 in order to illuminate the occurrence of child labor in cocoa industry in several West African nations. From the review, it has been found that about 284,000 children were employed in cocoa firms with unsafe working situations. In a number of cocoa firms, it has been found that children perform for in excess of 12 hours in a day. These child laborers are less likely to take school education (International Labour Office, 2005). Children are considered as the future of a nation. However, it is apparent that a number of children are used for cocoa production in order to minimize the manufacturing expenses and make higher revenue. It can be observed that the key cultivators of cocoa are less concerned regarding this unethical trade practice. All stakeholders who are related with the long and complex supply chain of cocoa industry are responsible for the issue of child labor. It has also been
Thursday, October 17, 2019
Applied anatomy and physiology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words
Applied anatomy and physiology - Essay Example I obtained the consent before proceeding with any procedure. For a detailed medical record of the patient please refer to the index at the end of this paper. I was in contact with the patient for three weeks as I was monitoring the patient’s recovery and the effect of medication and diet. I had to monitor the diabetic data that the patient was showing so that I could change any medication or diet in the patient’s diet plan. My capacity included direct interaction with the patient where I could talk and advise any recommendations or any guideline that I deemed necessary. I had to go through a detailed discussion about the confidentiality because the privacy of medical records of the patient is always a debatable issue. The patient’s content that they are the sole owners of their medical record and this cannot be shared with anyone. The patients have the right to access their own medical records (Schoenberg & Safran, 2000). However, the doctor side of this debate argues that the medical records should be accessible to the medical staff and anyone that the doctors deemed worthy and qualified enough to share their opinion for the recovery and better treatment of the patient. The normal anatomy and physiology of the patient with type II diabetes includes normal blood pressure but the patient presented the case of hypotension. This condition can be explained by the use of drug Amlodipine. The normal physiology of a 45 year old male does not include nausea or headaches. At the age of 45 a person is healthy showing no unusual weakness in limbs and no visual disturbance. Endocrine pancreas is present as cell-clusters (islets of Langerhans) comprising four types of cells: alpha, beta, PP and delta cells (Sussel et al., 1998). Type II diabetes mellitus occurs with the interaction of environmental factors and a certain combination of genetic variants (Sladek et al., 2007). A study by Lorenzo et al. (1994) reveals that amylin fibril formation in
Experiences of Schizophrenia Counseling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words
Experiences of Schizophrenia Counseling - Essay Example One of the greatest rewards in working with those who have schizophrenia is mentoring those who are feeling like they have hit rock bottom then climbed the ladder to emotional stability and happiness. That is when they know that have achieved success by regularly attending group therapy sessions, practiced exercises they have been taught and made progress day by day. Some challenges I face are that some of the patients are inconsolable and have thoughts of suicide. This is where I believe that family therapy is also helpful because they need as much support as they can receive. This of course is supplemental to the drug therapy which is the backbone of treatment. The behavioral and family therapies are a means of supplementing drug therapy to help re-integrate schizophrenic individuals into society through the development of social skills. By re- integrating the individuals back into society, the probability that the patients adhere to their drug therapies increases. I believe this i s crucial for them to live a normal life.
Wednesday, October 16, 2019
The positive, beneficial functions of IR law Essay
The positive, beneficial functions of IR law - Essay Example 114). The losses suffered from World War I and World War II caused the international community to review international laws and this brought about the creation of the United Nations, a body that is charged with upholding international laws and preventing such conflicts from reoccurring. For instance, the UN peace keeping missions have brought about sustainable peace in conflict regions, like in the Ethiopia – Eritrean war and the conflict in Darfur, Sudan. If international laws were absent in such cases, it is most likely that there would be never ending conflicts in such parts of the world. International laws also regulate the conduct of states that have competitive advantage over others with regard to commons. Likewise, these laws are useful in terms of protecting the position of disadvantaged parties in such situations as Hoffmann (1968) has pointed out (p. 115). It would be difficult for landlocked countries to have access to sea ports if the international laws were non-existent. It is therefore great that the United Nations Convention put in place the Law of the Sea which provides landlocked countries with access to sea ports and therefore allows them to trade competitively. In the end, international law allows disadvantaged states end up with a fairly level playing field similar to that of their more advantaged counterparts. Additionally, Hoffmann (1968) emphasizes that international laws allow for the gathering of support from the international community on matters of interest (p. 115). International laws recognize that a states sovereignty does not necessarily translate to the protection of laws and upholding of values. Human rights and environmental conditions can easily be victimized when a states activities go on unquestioned or unchallenged. The reason for the invasion of Iraq by the United States, although highly criticized, was argued to be a mission to disarm the Saddam Husseins regime off weapons of
Experiences of Schizophrenia Counseling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words
Experiences of Schizophrenia Counseling - Essay Example One of the greatest rewards in working with those who have schizophrenia is mentoring those who are feeling like they have hit rock bottom then climbed the ladder to emotional stability and happiness. That is when they know that have achieved success by regularly attending group therapy sessions, practiced exercises they have been taught and made progress day by day. Some challenges I face are that some of the patients are inconsolable and have thoughts of suicide. This is where I believe that family therapy is also helpful because they need as much support as they can receive. This of course is supplemental to the drug therapy which is the backbone of treatment. The behavioral and family therapies are a means of supplementing drug therapy to help re-integrate schizophrenic individuals into society through the development of social skills. By re- integrating the individuals back into society, the probability that the patients adhere to their drug therapies increases. I believe this i s crucial for them to live a normal life.
Tuesday, October 15, 2019
Opera - Carmen Essay Example for Free
Opera Carmen Essay This was an amazing Opera, I only wish that I had the opportunity to see it in person. I have never watched anything like it, and probably would not have had it not been part of this class. Let me say Thank you for opening my eyes to this amazing experience. The theatrical performance, choreography and music were very moving and to my surprise drew me in to continue watching and trying to interpret. I have to say I was very shocked at the sexuality used in this performance, it seemed as thought it was wrote long before its time. Carmens sexuality was very much a large part of the performance and I found it intriguing. I decided to rent the movie Carmen to compare the performances and found them to be very similar in character however the Opera was much more captivating. The music alone is wonderful but when added to the stage performance it was absolutely mesmerizing. Carmen is a direct conflict of the expectations for women of this time period. Women were to be gentle, biddable and sinned against. However Carmen used her beauty and sexuality to her advantage. She perfectly combined her acting, singing, and dancing abilities to portray a seductive and enticing personality that even Don Jose could not resist. The musical transitions for each character and scene were for me the amateur at times overwhelming and difficult to take it all in. As the music and people become loud during the bullfight in the background you can hear Carmen and Don Jose characters in the music. In the beginning of the Opera Don Jose appears to be very strong and powerful with an ability to ignore Carmen. Again the music helps portray this image. Obviously he changes throughout the performance to become ravaged with lust and jealousy towards Carmen. You can hear in his voice his defeat and it leaves you to believe that although he will no longer be jealous he also will mourn Carmen forever. Although the orchestra was not shown often it appeared that it consisted primarily of men, which I found rather interesting. The sets were also incredible which made me wonder how the original sets were designed. This Opera appears to have been a monumental changes in the French Opera it is a shame that Bizet, due to his early death, was unable to realize his impact not only of his time but still today 100 years later.
Monday, October 14, 2019
Performance Appraisal Methods On Psychological Contract Management Essay
Performance Appraisal Methods On Psychological Contract Management Essay The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the impact of performance appraisal methods on psychological contract between employer and employee in UK retail sector ( Iceland food ltd. ). The author will attempt to achieve this by focusing on importance of performance appraisal methods in improving motivation and performance of the employees and by ascertaining whether there is clear understanding of the term of psychological contract involved in performance appraisal meeting. The UK retail market is set to increase in size by 15% over the next five years, taking its value to just over  £312bn (UK Retail Futures 2011: Sector Summary, Data monitor). However this represents a slowing down of annual growth and with operating costs and the cost of credit set to rise, the retail sector faces challenging times. The retail culture is commercially driven and as such there is pressure to perform. Working in retail is hard work and the dynamic nature of the business requires a flexible attitude. Working in a shop is very likely to involve working weekends and late nights. Work-life balance could be a very significant issue for an industry that traditionally has an image of long or antisocial working hours. The retail industry employs over 3 million people (data collected March 08). This equates to 11% of the total UK workforce (UK Retail Futures 2011: Sector Summary, Data monitor). Almost 8% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the UK is generated by the retail sector. UK retail sales were approximately  £265 billion in 2007, which is larger than the combined economies of Denmark and Portugal (UK Retail Futures 2011: Sector Summary, Data monitor). The retail industry and the jobs within it are susceptible to economic and consumer trends. Today, most organisations on the major basis have some kind of performance appraisal system in place. A study conducted by Hirsh (2006) found that only a third of the HR professionals felt that the established appraisal methods have achieved theirs objectives and that most appraised exercises could not really had helped organisations to improve their performance (Hirsh, 2006 as quoted within Fletcher, 2008 p.1). Indeed, appraisal has become an emotive word because it is either done poorly or partly as the organisations keep on ignoring the values of the performance appraisal, thereby affecting the psychological contract of the individual. There are many indicators of a traumatized psychological contract; this can later be attributed to poor performance appraisal methods. Such indicators include; high turnover, low motivation, low job satisfaction (Hiltrop, 1995). According to Fletcher (2008), The unpopularity of using performance appraisal methods can be clearly seen as most organisations use the same process with different titles such as Performance Reviews, Work Planning and Review and many others. Iceland food ltd. follow this rule as the appraisal methods in place are described. Statement of Purpose The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the impact of performance appraisal methods used on psychological contract between the employer and employee. With an aim of examining the efficiency of the techniques used to perform the appraisal system in place. The importance of the appraisal system within Iceland food ltd. will also be established. This will be initially achieved by investigating the importance of performance appraisal methods in improving the motivation and performance of the employees, and by ascertaining whether there is clear understanding of the terms of psychological contract involved in the performance appraisal meetings. It will be important to understand how these performance appraisal methods are being evaluated. The secondary research conducted on this topic, made use of a number of academic journals, articles and books related to the subject to monitor performance of appraisal techniques. The data collection procedure involves a quantitative questionnaire issued to the employees of Icelands, and a series of semi structured qualitative interviews. 1.2 The Importance of the Study The importance of the study is to understand the effect of performance appraisal on the psychological contract of the individual employee working in the retail food super stores. The method and the aim of the appraisal process is vital in giving training, motivation, confidence and job satisfaction to the employee as well as the rewards they get out of pay review. The author endeavours to find out what are the elements of the psychological contract of employee working in the retail food industry and whether or not it is affected by good or bad appraisal system used by the organisation. The primary research is conducted on the employees of the retail store to get the exact scenario of their present working conditions and their psychological contract with a focus on the performance review policy of the organisation. 1.3 Background of the company Investigated. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ so thats why mums go to Iceland! Iceland began business in 1970, when Malcolm Walker opened the first store in Oswestry, Shropshire with his business partners Peter Hinchcliffe, Colin Harris, Thomas Duffin and John Apthorp investing  £30 each. This was for only one months rent at their Shropshire store. They were all still employees of Woolworths at the time, and their employment was terminated once their employer discovered their job on the side. Iceland initially specialized in loose frozen food. By 1975, there were 15+ Iceland outlets in North Wales, with the first supermarket-style outlet opening in Manchester a couple of years later. The firms head office moved to Deeside, Flintshire in 1979. Iceland was floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1984, by which stage it had 81 outlets. In 1989 Iceland bought its competitor Bejam which was some three times larger in terms of business. By January 2004, the combined chain had 760 stores throughout the United Kingdom. Finding the retail market more hostile in the late 1990s, Iceland pursued avenues for differentiation. In 1998, the firm began to focus on providing organic food and genetically modified-free food. This policy saw the company convert its entire frozen vegetable range to organic in 2000. In 1999, Iceland launched what it claimed to be the first nationwide, free, online grocery shopping service. This tied in with the rebranding of all outlets under the Iceland.co.uk. However, the rebranding exercise appears to have been quietly abandoned in the early 2000s, as the unadorned Iceland name is now used more widely, although some stores still have the Iceland.co.uk name on display. Iceland was renamed the Big Food Group in Feb 2002, and attempted a refocus on the convenience sector with a bid for Londis. Grimsey remained until the takeover and demerger of the Big Food Group by a consortium led by the Icelandic company, Baugur Group in February 2005. Since Malcolm Walkers return to the company, Iceland has reduced the workforce by 500 jobs at the Deeside Head Office, with approximately 300 jobs moved in September as a result of a relocation of a distribution warehouse from Deeside to Warrington. During July 2006, 300 workers took industrial action with the support of their union, blocking several Lorries from entering the depot. Despite this, the transfer to Warrington took place and the new warehouse was later outsourced to DHL in April 2007. In January 2009, Iceland announced that it would buy 51 stores in the UK from the failed Woolworths Group chain; three days after the final 200 Woolworths stores closed their doors for the last time. In April 2009, Iceland announced plans to close its appliance showrooms by September 2009 to concentrate on food retailing. Icelands sales for the year ended 27 March 2009 were  £2.08 billion, a 16% increase on the previous year, with net profits of  £113.7 million. Iceland is a successful and growing business, and to maintain our momentum we want to help all our people to fulfil their ambitions and realise their potential. We take pride in our training and development, and our 2009 staff survey showed that 87% of our employees considered that they had all the training they needed to do their job well. In addition to paying close attention to the results of these regular surveys, we conduct individual performance reviews designed to identify strengths, ambition and potential, and are strongly committed to providing opportunities for those who wish to develop their careers within Iceland. Over 60% of our store managers have attained their positions through internal promotion. Currently Iceland is having over 750 stores through out the UK. And more than 18000 employees work within Iceland food ltd. Iceland have employees hand book that is handed over to the employees during the induction. This employees handbook is basically designed for the frontline staffs, which includes the entire details of the induction procedure, probationary period, performance appraisal, disciplinary, dress policy, dignity at work and grievance procedures and other important elements of the contract. The entire information on the Icelands was known to the author with the help of store manager of the Iceland food ltd. And from the Iceland food ltd website and staff hand book. AIM The aim of the research is to investigate the effectiveness of appraisal method on the psychological contract between the employer and employee. Objectives To examine the concept and theories related to psychological contract. To examine the concept and theories related to performance appraisal. To describe and compare performance appraisal methods used by Iceland food ltd. To critically analyse the effect of performance appraisal method on psychological contract. 1.6 Overview of the Study The dissertation will be presented in a series of the following chapters. Brief description of each chapter is written below with a diagrammatic representation (Figure 1.0 and Table 1.0 Overview of the study). Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 2 Literature Review Chapter 3 Methodology Chapter 4 Results Chapter 6 Conclusion and Recommendation Introduction: This chapter gives the introduction to the study, covering the aim and objectives of the study. It includes the statement of purpose and the background of the company investigated. Literature Review: This chapter provides the critical analysis of all the secondary research conducted by the author on the performance appraisal, psychological contract followed by the discussion of the effects of former on latter. Methodology: This chapter explains the research aim and the research process undertaken by the author to fulfil the research questions outlined in previous chapter. It also includes the primary method conducted by the author to gather the research data. Results: This chapter includes the findings of the primary research conducted by the author. It also includes the charts and graphs that explain the findings of the research. Discussion and Analyses: This chapter includes analyses of the finding of the primary research. It also includes the comments of the interviews as well as analyse the outcome of the survey conducted by the author. Conclusion and Recommendation: This is the final chapter of the study which will give a synopsis of all the findings and cross refer it with the objectives stated in the initial chapter. It will also offer the recommendations for further research. Chapter 5 Discussion and Analyses CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction A literature review as defined by Fink (2005:3) is a systematic, explicit and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating and synthesising the existing body of completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars and practitioners (Fink 2005, p.3) AIM The aim of the research is to investigate the effectiveness of appraisal method on the psychological contract between the employer and employee. Objectives To examine the concept and theories related to psychological contract. To examine the concept and theories related to performance appraisal. To describe and compare performance appraisal methods used by Iceland food ltd. To critically analyse the effect of performance appraisal method on psychological contract. To draw conclusion and make recommendation about the effectiveness performance appraisal method on the employees of Iceland food ltd. This section therefore, attempts to review some related literature relevant to this study. Moreover this literature review seeks to justify the uniqueness of this study in the light of the works of other known scholars in the field of performance assessment strategies on the psychological contract, focusing on the performance appraisal method used by Iceland food ltd, U.K. This section is arranged into themes in line with the research objectives and questions outlined in the preceding chapter. The review will begin with the purpose of the psychological contract and the appraisal method, followed by the different types of the appraisal methods. Then the performance appraisal method used by the Iceland food ltd U.K. will be critically reviewed and how the performance appraisal affect the psychological contract between the employer and employee will be discussed. Lastly the advantages and limitations of this factor and the importance of this study will be presented. In addition, a recent view is of Conway and Briner where they define : What Psychological Contract is ? To examine the concept of the psychological contract, a review of existing definitions and research needs to be assessed. Origins of the term psychological contract derived from Argyris in the 1960s who referred to it as the implicit understanding between a group of employees and their foreman, while Schein in 1965 further developed the concept focussing on the high level relationship between the employee and the organisation (Wellin 2007). Furthermore, Kotter in 1973 (as quoted within Roehling 1997) described the psychological contract as, an implicit contract between an individual and his organisation which specifies what each expects to give and receive from each other in their relationship. (Kotter as quoted within Roehling 1997 p.210) psychological contract as, the perceptions of the two parties, employee and employer, of what their mutual obligations are towards each other (Conway and Briner (2005) as quoted within CIPD 2009) However, Rousseau (1995) (as quoted in Guerrero and Herrbach 2007) believes that the psychological contract is formulated in the minds of the employees, individual beliefs, shaped by the organisation, regarding terms of an exchange agreement between individuals and their organisation. (Rousseau (1995) as quoted within Guerrero and Herrbach 2007 p.4) Taking all that into consideration, the nature of the psychological contract can be seen as the implicit unwritten expectations and beliefs that one holds in relation to their employment relationship. These contracts can be highly subjective and what makes them binding is what they are perceived to be (Hughes and Palmer 2007). Conway and Briner (2002) state that the beliefs refer to employee perceptions of the explicit and implicit promises regarding the exchange of the employee contributions such as effort, ability and loyalty for organisational inducements such as pay, promotion and security. Moreover, Bloisi, Cook and Hunsaker (2003) supports this statement by stipulating that workers are expected to input their skills, time, effort, commitment and loyalty to the organisation in return of wages, benefits, job security, opportunity to progress their achievement, power, status and affiliations. Witte et al. (2008) clarifies further that the idea of balance is key to these mutual exchanges within this dynamic and informal contract so that the employee feels that what is offered by the organisation balances what the individual brings to the relationship. Perceived imbalance could consequently result in the perception of contract violation. The CIPD (2005) highlighted a simplified Guest model (1996) of the p sychological contract as illustrated in Figure 2.1. The influencing factors that feed into the contract include the human resource practices, organisational content and the individual characteristics of the employee. The psychological contract content can be measured in terms of fairness of treatment, trust, and the amount of which the implicit deal or contract is perceived as being delivered in reflection of a set of obligations or some sort of exchange (Guest 1996). The outcomes as a result of the content of the contract are the employee attitudes and behaviours. The CIPD (2005) found that employees attitudes of trust, fairness and delivery of the deal are major determents to gaining a psychological contract which creates employee commitment and satisfaction. Robinson (1996) (as quoted within Bosch-Sjtsema 2007) claimed that expectations are often shaped by past experience, social norms and observations that are influencing factors to the contract. It was also asserted by Rousseau (2001) that these promise based psychological contracts take the form of a mental model or schema over time. She found that an employees pre-employment experiences, recruiting practices within the company and on the job socialisation as influencing factors to the formation of these schemas which may differ the content or form that an individuals psychological contract takes. 2.1 The Purpose of Psychological Contract According to Bloisi et al., (2003; p.123) the psychological contract is considered as workers implicit expectations about what they are expected to contribute to an organisation and what they will receive in return (Bloisi et al., 2003 p. 123) In a similar way Schein (1965) defined that The notion of a psychological contract implies that there is an unwritten set of expectations operating at all times between every member of an organisation and the various managers and others in that organisation (Schein 1965 as quoted within Armstrong 2003, p 297). According to Hiltrop (1995), it has been noticed there is a significant rate of change of the economic environment in which the organisations work during the last twenty years. Increasing competition, globalisation of markets has demanded greater flexibility and productivity of organisations, as well as new strategies focused on innovation and speed. In the psychological contract the perceived responsibility of an organization influenced by employees expectation ( Cheong Kim 2009). As a result, the terms of old psychological contract has changed radically which earlier gave security, stability and predictability to the relationship between employer and employee (Hiltrop, 1995 p. 286 287). Moreover, the above definition stated by Schein (1965) was amplified by Rousseau and Wade-Benzoni (1994) who stated that Psychological contracts refer to beliefs that individuals hold regarding promises made, accepted and relied upon themselves and another. (In case of organisations, these parties include an employee, client, manager, and/or organisation as a whole.) Because psychological contracts represent how people interpret promises and commitments, both parties in the same employment relationship (employer and employee) can have different views regarding specific terms. (Rousseau and Wade-Benzoni, 1994 p. 463-89) Guest and Conway (1998) summarise stating that since the psychological contract is not written down formally it lacks the characteristics of the formal contract due to which it has no beginning and no end and which is why it cannot be enforced in a court or a tribunal. Guest and Conway (1998) also believe that: The psychological contract is best seen as a metaphor; a word or a phrase borrowed from another context which help us make sense of our experience. The psychological contract is a way of interpreting the state of the employment relationship and helping to plot significant changes (Guest and Conway, 1998 as quoted in Armstrong, 2003 p. 298). 2.1.1 The importance of Psychological Contract The importance of the psychological contract was emphasized by Schein (1965) suggests that the extent to which people work effectively and are committed to the organisation depends on the degree to which their own expectation of what the organisation will provide them and in return what the organisation expects of them; and the nature of what actually is exchanged for example, money in exchange for time at work, security in exchange for hard work and loyalty, and various combinations of other things (Schein, 1965 as quoted within Armstrong, 2003, p 299). The HR profession will have significant role to play in the management and balancing of the general or specific psychological contracts of employees. The HR function can act as a focal point for helping to discover employees expectations through collective channels or individual mechanisms, while seeking to provide for the meeting of employees expectations (e.g. Sims, 1994) (Holden and Breadwell, 2001 p. 546). The HR professionals must make sure that different facets of human resource management and the different managers shape and support the psychological contracts in consistent, integrated and balanced manner, (Rousseau and Greller, 1994 p. 385-401). If employees feel that their psychological contract has been disrupted or breached, and then they may withhold or withdraw from the relationships, consciously or unconsciously, (Spindler, 1994: 326- 327). 2.1.2 The Guest model of Psychological Contract This model was formulated by Guest et al, 1996 suggests that the contract should be measured in terms of fairness of treatment, trust, and the extent to which the explicit deal or contract is perceived to be delivered. Figure 2.1: A Model of the psychological contract Causes Organisational culture HRM policy and practice Experience Expectations Alternatives Consequences Fairness Trust The delivery of the deal Content Organisational citizenship Organisational commitment Motivation Satisfaction and well-being Source: Guest et al, 1996 The simplified Guest model of the psychological contract as illustrated above in Figure 2.1 (as quoted in CIPD 2006) defines it in terms of linkage between the inputs, being the HR practices; the employee features and the companys characteristics together with the content, being the fairness and trust and finally the outputs being the employees behaviour; work performance and delivery. ODonnell and Shields (2002) believes that Guests extended model of the psychological contract (from employee perspective) represents a particularly useful way of understanding the attitudinal and behavioural impact of employment practices at the level of the individual employee (Guest 1998: 659-60) Hiltrop (1995) states that this psychological contract has two important aims, the first for providing a gauge for employers of the type of outputs they are going to obtain from employees and secondly by employees contributing their time and effort for the level of rewards they will receive. 2.1.3 The changing nature of the Psychological Contract According to Hiltrop (1995), there is considerable evidence that shows the changing of the psychological contract in the past decades. Now the employers want to know in advance the outcome of the employees efforts and employees want to know what reward he will get in exchange of the hard work and time spend in the organisation. De Meuse and Tornow (1990) stated that since the 1970s, however, the force that connect employers and employees has become severely stressed organisations deal with the need to cut costs and enhance efficiency, have ever more compacted their workforce and eradicated some of the elements (job security, regular promotions up the corporate ladder, annual wage increases, cheap mortgages, etc.) offered as a rule to employees in the earlier decades (De Meuse and Tornow 1990 p. 203-13). Moreover, people fill in the blanks along the way, and they sometimes do so inconsistently (Rousseau, 1994 as quoted in Hiltrop, 1995 p. 287). In addition to the above context, Kolb et al., (1991) have pointed out that a company staffed by cheated individuals who expect far more than they get is headed for trouble (Kolb et al., 1991 as stated in Hiltrop, 1995 p.287). Conversely, optimistically, some organisations are trying to develop steps that can increase mutuality and to endow with scale for tangential career development and enhance knowledge and skills through opportunities for learning. It has been recognised that the organisations can no longer provide a guaranteed long term job to the employees; they have to take responsibilities to build their skills and give a path for career development. In other words they take steps to improve employability (Armstrong, 2003 p. 302). Two diagrammatic representations are given below which shows the differences between the old and new employment contract by Kissler (1994) and the changing nature of the psychological contract by Hiltrop (1995). Figure 2.2: Difference between the old and new contract. OLD Relationship is predetermined and imposed You are who you work for and what you do Loyalty is defined by performance Employees who do what they are told will work till retirement NEW Relationship is mutual and negotiated You are defined by multiple roles, many external to the organisation Loyalty is defined by output and quality People and skills only needed when required Long-term employment is unlikely; expect and prepare for multiple relationships Source: Kissler, 1994, p. 335-52 Figure 2.3: Changing Psychological Contract . FROM Imposed relationship (compliance, command and control) Permanent employment relationship Focus on promotion Finite job duties Meet job requirements Emphasise on job security and loyalty to the company Training provided by organisation TO Mutual relationship (commitment, participation and involvement) Variable employment relationship people and skills only obtained or retained when required Focus on lateral career development Multiple roles Add value Emphasis on employability and loyalty to own career and skills Opportunities for self-managed learning Source: Hiltrop 1995, p 286-294. Hiltrop (1995) also suggests that a new psychological contract is emerging which is more situational and short term that assumes that each party is less dependent on the other for survival and growth. This new contract was described by Hiltrop (1995) as a worker being employed as long as they provide added value to the company and in return they expect the right to demand interesting and important work with the freedom and resources to perform it well along with performance related pay and training and development. However Armstrong (2006) argued that this could hardly be classified as a balanced contract because employers still dictate their workers employment terms and conditions apart from cases where workers are in demand and there is little supply of skills. Mant (1996) (as quoted within Armstrong 2006) classified workers as resources that are acquired or divested according to shortterm economic circumstances, therefore having little influence over the terms of the contract that their employer offers them. Additionally Taylor (2008) claims that the new relationship is less emotional and is simply an economic exchange, thus moving from relational to transactional. Organisations that are now adopting the rationale behind the use of the flexible firm model (Atkinson 1984) will have developed diverse types of psychological contracts among their workforce. Rousseau and Wade-Benzoni (1995) (as quoted within McDonald and Making 2000) found that temporary staff usually have a transactional contract with significance given to the economic elements of the contract, whilst permanent staff are more likely to have a relational contract involving commitment to the organisation. Additionally Guest (2004) found that the content of temporary workers psychological contract is narrower, transactional and easier to manage on both the employers and employees behalf which temporary workers preferred. An investigation into the company Flexco (Saunders and Thornhill 2005) found that forced change within the company structure through downsizing changed the psychological contract of those on permanent and temporary employment contracts. After the changes it was reported that the temporary workers contained mostly transactional expectations and most permanent employees were found to have relational expectations. However, there were a few exceptions regarding permanent employees, who felt that the changes had violated their contract in terms of interpersonal treatment. These employees felt insecure, and worried that they may face a temporary contract in the future, which emphasises that they no longer felt as though their job was secure. 2.2 The purpose of the performance appraisal. Performance assessment is one of the many people management techniques that classify and order individual hierarchically (Townley, 1994, p.33). A performance appraisal is the process by which a manager evaluates an employees work performance by measurement and comparison with previously established standards (Palmer, 1991 p. 1). According to Palmer (1991), there are two major purpose of conducting performance appraisals. One purpose is to provide the information for the administrative decision making such as the increment of salary, bonuses, promotion and the administrative actions that can be brought by the work performance of the employee. This also helps the organisation to decide whether to introduce for instance, a new incentive system or to improve the present pay and promotion methods. In other words, it is a vehicle to validate and refine organisational actions. For example, it has been noticed in the appraisal data that one of the employee has constant conflicts with the fellow colleague or with the supervisor or manager. Some options can be concluded from the above case, which is, showing more importance to the interpersonal skill while recruiting the new staff or encouraging the present employee to attend the sessions on the conflict management offered by various colleges or providing the employee with one-to-one counselling (Billikopf, 2003 p. 60). The other major purpose is to provide feedback to the employees on their work performance based on the standards established on the job description and analysis. Feedback provided by the supervisor or the manager give the employees an opportunity to develop their career path within the organisation. Feedback can be positive or constructive. Positive appraisal has many benefits and beneficiar
Sunday, October 13, 2019
The Underground Railroad and Iowa: On the Road from Slavery to Freedom
The Underground Railroad and Iowa: On the Road from Slavery to Freedom â€Å"I looked at my hands to see if I was the same person†¦ There was such a glory over everything. The sun came up like gold through the trees, and I felt like I was in Heaven.†Harriet Tubman uttered these words when she arrived in Pennsylvania, a free woman at last (National Geographic). Years later, when talking about the reasons she ran away, Ms. Tubman would state, â€Å"[There are] two things I [have] a right to and these are Death and Liberty. One or the other I mean to have. No one will take me back alive†(America’s Civil War, 42). While most research on the Underground Railroad focuses on the northern states, the state of Iowa played an essential role in the Railroad. Clinton, Iowa was often a runaway’s last stop before crossing the Mighty Mississippi River. The first documentation of the name Underground Railroad is from the year 1831 and in one case, attributed to the owner of a former slave, Tice David. David successfully gained freedom by traversing along small creeks, rivers, and dense woods and his owner finally gave up searching for him. Upon returning to Kentucky, Tice David’s former slave-owner announced, â€Å"He must have gone on an underground road†(America’s Civil War, 42). Another name given to the Underground Railroad was the Freedom Train (National Underground Railroad Freedom Center) and Harriet Tubman was inarguably one of the most famous conductors on this train, leading thousands of slaves to their freedom in the north. Since the formation of the Iowa Territory, the largest population group, settling in what would become Iowa, came from southern states. Because of this, early historians assumed that Iowa would tak... ...ng, 1983. Patrick, Kathy. Escaped Slaves on the Underground Railroad found welcome havens in Ohio’s Oberlin and Wellington. America’s Civil War – Travel. May 1994: 66 – 68. â€Å"Harriet Tubman†. New Standard Encyclopedia. Standard Education Corporation. Volume 17. Chicago: 1994. (no author listed). National Geographic Web site March 28, 2002 http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/99/railroad/> National Underground Railroad Freedom Center March 28, 2002 http://www.undergroundrailroad.org/> â€Å"Underground Railroad†. New Standard Encyclopedia. Standard Education Corporation. Volume 18. Chicago: 1994. (no author listed). Wilmot, Franklin A. â€Å"Disclosures and confessions of Frank A. Wilmot, the slave thief and Negro runner†. Philadelphia: Barclay & Co. 1860. Library of American Civilization. McIntyre Library, UWEC Campus. Eau Claire, WI.
Saturday, October 12, 2019
Francisco Goya, Life Of An Art :: essays research papers
Jose de Goya y Lucientes was born on March 30, in the year 1746, in Fuendetodos, a small village in northern Spain. At the age of fourteen he became an apprentice for a local artist, Jose Luzan. Later he traveled to Madrid where he took interest in the last of the great Venetian painters. After attempting and failing to enroll in the Royal Academy of San Fernando, Goya then traveled to Rome, Italy. Then on to Sagossa in 1771 where he painted fresco in several local churches, establishing a reputation. In 1773 Goya married a women named Josefa Bayeu, together they had many children, unfortunately only one by the name of Xavier made it to become an adult. From 1775 to1792 Goya paints cartoons for a royal tapestry factory, beginning his first genre paintings of everyday life. Later Goya achieves his first successful movement. He became a portrait painter for the Spanish aristocracy. He finally enrolled in the Royal Academy of San Fernando in 1780, Francisco and was named painter to King Charles IV in 1786,and Court Painter in 1789. In 1792 he suffered from a serious illness which left him permanently deaf. This began to make him feel alienated and separated from everyone else, provoking him to paint the darkness and weakness of mankind. He began to paint his own version of caricatures, showing the subjects as he saw them. In 1795 he was elected director of painting at the Royal Academy and served until 1797, then being appointed Spanish Court Painter in 1799. Goya soon after begins a time where his imagination goes wild, and he enters a world of surrealism, which at the time proved to be unexceptable. Being unable to present these paintings, he withdraws his works and continues his job. During Napoleons invasion and the Spanish war of Independence Goya became court painter for the French from 1808 to 1814. King Ferdinan VIII, king of Spain brings Goya back to Spain as Chamber Painter after the war.
Friday, October 11, 2019
E-commerce in Developing Countries
Commerce is the exchange of goods and services for a consideration, commonly money. Thus e-commerce is exchange of goods and services facilitated electronically. For the purpose of this paper we will adopt the broad definition of e-commerce to mean any use of information and communications technology by a business that helps it improve its interactions with a customer or a supplier (Payne E. J 2003). E-commerce uses the internet, telephone and fax. This are all those that allow for business to be conducted in near real time conditions.In advanced countries, e-commerce has led to a boom in Business Processing Operations (B.P. O’s) and Call Centers. While the developing world is gearing itself to catch up to e-commerce, some countries have displayed outstanding achievements; India is worth mentioning in this context.Indeed India’s advancements in e-commerce even rival those in advanced countries, and in some cases, surpass them. Today, maybe as a consequence, India is eme rging as a technological superpower. One crucial benefit that developing countries are envisioning to gain from e-commerce is the expanded market for commodities and services while at the same time eradicating the role played by middle men in traditional distribution chains.For example, in Kenya the mobile phone has helped the farmer many kilometers from major markets access the current prevailing prices thus avoid exploitation by the middlemen. Developing countries are keen to replicate the achievements made by advanced countries together with India in e-commerce. This is with the view of reaping the economic gains that are obvious to all stake holders to date. However certain difficult decisions have to be made in the journey to establishing a vibrant e-commerce sector in these countries.Worth noting is that the infrastructure in the developing world is in dire need of a major upgrade. For example, the internet and the World Wide Web are absolutely vital for the realization of suc cessful e-commerce. The systems in place in majority of the developing world are both costly and far below the expected standards necessary for the implementation of near real time trade. These costly infrastructural improvements will bring about the following: ? Faster connection speeds to the internet to facilitate data transfer.? Clearer and superior voice and sound clarity to enable fulfillment of intra global trade involving conferencing and discussion over the World Wide Web. ? Extremely low operating costs together with higher output capacities which facilitate business profitability and sustainability. This paper is of the view that though e-commerce has high set up costs, major organizational adjustments and infrastructural considerations, developing countries stand to gain massive economic benefits offered by a successful harnessing of the e-commerce sector. Main TextModes of E-commerce There are different modes of e-commerce – Phone, Fax and Internet. Phone e-comme rce happens where the provider of the goods or service communicates with the buyer through a phone. Phones come in various application modes such as satellite phone, mobile phone, telephone etc. Fax e-commerce is where communication between the buyer and seller is done over the fax. Its advantages are in the speed of transactions, the reach available and the lower cost implication compared to face to face conversation or other traditional modes.The Internet and the World Wide Web are the latest major additions to e-commerce and they have brought remarkable solutions in voice and data communications that were erstwhile unimagined. For example, the concept of a twenty four hour mobile office where goods and services are available to all and sundry on the globe in the comfort of ones residence is still strange in many business people in the developing world. Arguments against E-commerce in developing countries. There has been much of the debate on e-commerce especially regarding the ro le played by the internet and the World Wide Web.The major issues raised are listed below: ? Infrastructural cost. ? Change of mindsets to embrace the new forms of technological advancement. The present infrastructure needs major adjustments to enable it support e-commerce. Firstly, energy costs in developing countries are among the highest in the world. Per unit charge in consumption of electricity in the developing countries need to be brought down to levels comparable to those in advanced nations. For this to happen, the systems for power generation need to be upgraded to the latest technologies which tout higher efficiency at extremely low operating and maintenance costs.In addition to this, it has become almost general knowledge that much of the populations in the developing countries do not have access to electricity in the homes. The situation is grave since electricity supply can only be guaranteed in urban centers only, while the majority of the people live in rural areas. Secondly, the technology that supports internet and World Wide Web connections is inferior to those employed in advanced countries. This inferiority is in terms of its weak performance characteristics whereby it is slow and expensive in terms of data exchange, and cannot support a consistent voice dialog over the internet.This is issues can only be rectified with the introduction of the technology available abroad that includes installation of fiber optic cable connection, and inexpensive commercial satellite uplink among other technologies geared towards cutting down the cost of communication while improving performance. Other considerations take the nature and form of those that Pare D. J. (2002) brings to light. The cost of doing business will include, but not confined to network security and regulatory environment.Where as the business in a developed country would comfortably produce goods or services in the standards of the environment it operates in, it is forced to adopt stan dards of the buyer (receiver of the goods and services) who happens to be based in a more advanced country. Problems therefore emerge such as how to remit payments in a secure way, how to confirm that the items selected for purchase are as those displayed over the World Wide Web and other security oriented fears. ARGUMENT FOR E-COMMERCE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.Developing countries are faced with surging unemployment levels that cause discontent and saps development gains by straining resources and amenities. These economies have long held the notion that by expanding the sectors in there economy, they will be able to have more participation of its people in viable income generating activities. E-commerce is touted as one such sector that, as evidenced by the Indian success, millions of people can be absorbed in this sector which has positive trickle down effects and sound complementarities with other existing sectors in the economy.In addition, a positive labour diffusion process wi ll arise were by now-skilled laborers from developing countries migrate to advanced countries to get jobs that promise higher wages. It has been found that these nationals are responsible for shipping large amounts of foreign currency back home to assist there relatives. This foreign income is enables these countries to improve there balance of payments, hence accelerating development. A case in point is the dynamic tertiary sector in India that is spurred by the computer technology industry.India has remarkable strength in software development, which employs a large number of Indian technocrats. In fact, India produces such a large number of skilled personnel that major multi national firms in IT set up base in India. The dynamics here are that the large number of skilled labor concentrated in one area pushes down wages as competition for employment thrives. Due to these dynamics, India has at its disposal an abundance of relatively less expensive and highly learned work force.Ther e is, as a consequence, a high population of Asians of Indian origin fulfilling duties in the IT sectors of major world powers, including the United States of America and Great Britain. This export of human labor accounts for a significant amount of foreign currency transfer back home. I agree with (Humphrey J. et. al) when he argues that e-commerce will create a new culture. By embracing the way the world wants things done, developed countries will by extension be taking the initiative in creating home grown solutions to global problems, thus providing unique solutions that are customized to suit local contexts.This will create anew breed of workers unique to the developing countries. It is thus clear that where as e-commerce will be pretty expensive to embrace in the short term. In the long run however, the benefits accruing easily outweigh the costs. By embracing e-commerce the developing countries will be killing two birds with the same stone; generating economic growth and expa nsion by providing the necessary infrastructure and creating a new economy and culture for the learned in the country.Added to this is the bonus of providing a bigger market for its entrepreneurs, and a break away from the well known reliance that developing countries’ economies have in there primary and secondary sectors. THE KENYAN CASE In Kenya, the pioneer company in e-commerce is Kencall Ltd. Its basic vision is to lead the way in outsourcing business [Kencall. com]. Being the first major outsourcing company in Kenya, it was faced with a myriad of problems. Some of these problems are listed below: ? Lack of a pool of experienced labor force as is the case in India and South Africa.? Attempting to change local mindsets with its new concept, largely unknown in that part of the world. Where as BPO was already been taken to developing countries namely India and South Africa this was still a very strange idea in Kenya. ? Expensive telecommunication infrastructures, coupled wi th slow reforms in the Kenyan communications sector to enable it adjust to global developments. There was need for fast internet uplink to allow for real time transfer of data and voice to the clients. This particular problem was not easy to overcome.With the gateway controlled by the government and operating on obsolete technology with a knack for breaking down. It was another eighteen months before Internet gateways were liberalized and the company could now get good speeds courtesy of dedicated satellite uplinks. ? Under performance of the Kenyan economy coupled with a less than friendly relationship atmosphere that existed between Kenya and its development partners. Although this situation was improving, the pace was slow as the government pledged top implement much needed reforms in government.These altogether impacts negatively on investments and industry expansion. ? An unstable political climate in Kenya that was characterized by an over politicized climate. This has the eff ect of shifting concentration from economic growth and development issues to politics. With the implementation of certain reform pledges that led to restored confidence between Kenya and its development partners, there came a turn around in the Kenyan economy. It started to grow. The industry specific results were a marked expansion in investment, higher employment and an increase in per capita incomes.In addition there was a wider pool of returning graduates from developed countries who knew what BPO was all about. They came with much needed know how and information on the role of e-commerce in development. These included the directors of Kencall Ltd, in particular Mr. Nick Nesbitt [Kencall. com]. His contribution to the Kenyan economy has led him to be recognized by the government in through an honorary award bestowed to him by the president of the republic. With the realization by the government that in e-commerce lay a ‘goldmine’ [kencall.com], they sought to exploi t it by first laying a fiber optic cable all around Nairobi. By connecting to this the speeds were greatly enhanced although the costs still remain high. To reduce cost the government sought to lay an underground fiber optic cable. With partnership of Southern African countries they wanted to have the cable running from Cape Town to Somali. Politics has put this noble idea in the back burner. The Kenyan government on its part has chosen to go it alone, as it recognizes the importance of e-commerce. Plans are already at an advance stage to have a cable between Mombasa and Fujaira in Oman.In anticipation of this, a fibre optic cable has already been laid between Nairobi and Mombasa with the rest of the nation in the pipeline. All this has lead to a proliferation of BPO providers. Skyweb and Pacis have already joined into the fray. Smaller firms are doing the same but on a small scale. On Wed 11th July, Skyweb launched into the market a solution that allows a firm offer BPO on the stre ngth of only 5 computers. Expect in the next year to be a growth in this area. Safaricom, the biggest mobile phone operator has thrown a challenge to BPO providers.To show they can handle around 100,000 calls a day while maintaining quality and they will be given the account. This is a challenge to be taken seriously if e-commerce is to grow to match if not pass the pioneers like India and China. Due to the time difference, while other one part of the world sleeping the other is in the middle of a trading day, while another is waking up. There is need for a 24 hr approach to e-commerce in order to take advantage of all situations arising. Kencall has overcome this by operating on 8hr shifts for 24 hrs. This has been made possible by the good security provided by the government.Kencall Ltd [Daily Nation (2007)] has grown from an initial work force of 20 members to the present over 300 staff. The have also had to move location to a more spacious building where growth is possible. The amount of work handled ahs also grown six fold. This has led to Kenya been recognized as an upcoming force in e-commerce. By extension businesses in Developed countries feel comfortable when dealing with Kencall since they have the capacity to deliver. With the technological strides, Kencall can with a degree of certainty claim to be in a position to guarantee the integrity of its business partner’s information.In addition, Ken call has with itself the unique opportunity of spinning itself into and e-hub provider. With its wealth of experience, it can mitigate high turnover by providing training to would be e-commerce players. This way it will eliminate the need for people to seek employment only for them to quit after six to twelve months once they are trained and have an understanding of e-commerce and by extension BPO. CONCLUSION: Pare D. J 2003 is of the opinion that the mere bringing of total strangers together in an online environment will not necessarily reduce overall transactional cost to achieve long-term economic gains.This paper has tried to disprove this by clearly showing that the opposite is true. By improvement of the working environment, the long term economic gain is clear for any to see. The fibre optic link currently being enjoyed by all not only Kencall Ltd. More effective security is but one of the major achievements being enjoyed by Kenyans. On their part Kencall Ltd is reaping the fruits of persistence. They are defining the parameters in e-commerce simply because they have been longer in the game on the Kenyan context.Any new entrant will have to start form a point of disadvantage as compared to Kencall at present. With the present business environment where businesses are looking to outsource labour intensive operations, Kencall stands at an advantage. In addition, with all the people trained by Kencall, Kenya is at an advantageous position to exploit new business in e-commerce. The completion of the fibre optic link will great ly enhance this. Not only will the cost of doing business come down, it will also enable Kenya position itself as the regional hub of e-commerce.The reference point to all who desire to enter into this business – this will be all who know what is geed for them. The local producers now have the whole world open to them. The floriculture industry is a good example of successful exploitation of e-commerce in sourcing markets. It has taken only a decade for Kenya to command a healthy 30% of cut flowers sold in the world. This growth and success can be replicated in other areas. For example the floriculture industry is faced with rapid expansion problems and it is investing in technology from Israel and other countries leading in floriculture to fulfill this needs.Kenya can turn the big swaths of land on the northern part of Kenya to be great producers of horticulture as the global demand in Kenyan cut flowers increases, albeit stimulated by the easy access to market information f acilitated by e-commerce. Hence a concerted effort involving both the citizens and the government is needed to enhance awareness and accelerate infrastructure provision to enhance the benefits of e-commerce in providing remarkable industry specific economic solutions. As Annan K. rightly put it, e-commerce is the most visible example to how ICT can contribute to economic growth.By improving trading efficiency and helping developing countries integrate into the world economy. Allowing entrepreneurs to compete more create more jobs and by extension create more wealth. REFERENCE: Payne, Judith E. [2003]. E-Commerce readiness for SME’s in developing Countries: A guide for development professionals. Pare, Daniel J. [2003]. Does this site deliver? B2B E-Commerce services for developing countries: Humphrey, J. Mansell, R. Pare, and D Schmitz, H. [2003] . The reality of E-Commerce in developing countries: Does e-commerce provide developing country businesses with easy access to globa l markets?Annan, K [2003]. UNCTAD Secretariat, E -Commerce and Development Report 2003, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, United Nations, New York and Geneva. (In Forward). Okuttah. M. Outsourcing: The latent goldmine: http://www. kencall. com/goldmine. htm OTHER SOURCES http://www1. worldbank. org/devoutreach/spring00/article. asp? id=79 E-commerce for Developing Countries: Expectations and Reality, Volume 35, Number 1, 1 January 2004 , pp. 31-39(9) http://learnlink. aed. org/Publications/Concept_Papers/ecommerce_readiness. pdf
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)